Parenteral adjuvant potential of recombinant B subunit of Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin

BACKGROUND The B subunit of Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin (LTB) is a potent mucosal immune adjuvant. However, there is little information about LTB's potential as a parenteral adjuvant. OBJECTIVES We aimed at evaluating and better understanding rLTB's potential as a parenteral adjuvant using the fused R1 repeat of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae P97 adhesin as an antigen to characterise the humoral immune response induced by this construct and comparing it to that generated when aluminium hydroxide is used as adjuvant instead. METHODS BALB/c mice were immunised intraperitoneally with either rLTBR1 or recombinant R1 adsorbed onto aluminium hydroxide. The levels of systemic anti-rR1 antibodies (total Ig, IgG1, IgG2a, and IgA) were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The ratio of IgG1 and IgG2a was used to characterise a Th1, Th2, or mixed Th1/Th2 immune response. FINDINGS Western blot confirmed rR1, either alone or fused to LTB, remained antigenic; anti-cholera toxin ELISA confirmed that LTB retained its activity when expressed in a heterologous system. Mice immunised with the rLTBR1 fusion protein produced approximately twice as much anti-rR1 immunoglobulins as mice vaccinated with rR1 adsorbed onto aluminium hydroxide. Animals vaccinated with either rLTBR1 or rR1 adsorbed onto aluminium hydroxide presented a mixed Th1/Th2 immune response. We speculate this might be a result of rR1 immune modulation rather than adjuvant modulation. Mice immunised with rLTBR1 produced approximately 1.5-fold more serum IgA than animals immunised with rR1 and aluminium hydroxide. MAIN CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that rLTB is a more powerful parenteral adjuvant than aluminium hydroxide when administered intraperitoneally as it induced higher antibody titres. Therefore, we recommend that rLTB be considered an alternative adjuvant, even if different administration routes are employed.

Generation of dimeric single-chain antibodies neutralizing the cytolytic activity of vaginolysin

Background: Gardnerella vaginalis is a bacterial vaginosis (BV)-associated vaginal bacterium that produces the toxin vaginolysin (VLY). VLY is a pore-forming toxin that is suggested to be the main virulence factor of G. vaginalis. The high recurrence rate of BV and the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial species demonstrate the need for the development of recombinant antibodies as novel therapeutic agents for disease treatment. Single-chain variable fragments (scFvs) generated against VLY exhibited reduced efficacy to neutralize VLY activity compared to the respective full-length antibodies. To improve the properties of scFvs, monospecific dimeric scFvs were generated by the genetic fusion of two anti-VLY scFv molecules connected by an alpha-helix-forming peptide linker. Results: N-terminal hexahistidine-tagged dimeric scFvs were constructed and produced in Escherichia coli and purified using metal chelate affinity chromatography. Inhibition of VLY-mediated human erythrocyte lysis by dimeric and monomeric scFvs was detected by in vitro hemolytic assay. The circulating half-life of purified scFvs in the blood plasma of mice was determined by ELISA. Dimeric anti-VLY scFvs showed higher neutralizing potency and extended circulating half-life than parental monomeric scFv. Conclusions: The protein obtained by the genetic fusion of two anti-VLY scFvs into a dimeric molecule exhibited improved properties in comparison with monomeric scFv. This new recombinant antibody might implement new possibilities for the prophylaxis and treatment of the diseases caused by the bacteria G. vaginalis.

Optimización de un método de PCR en tiempo real para el diagnóstico de infecciones por Mycoplasma pneumoniae / Optimization of a real-time PCR method for the diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections

A Mycoplasma pneumoniae se lo ha descrito como causante de diversas patologías, pero la más frecuente es la neumonía de la comunidad, en la que puede asociarse a otros patógenos. Afecta pincipalmente a niños de edad escolar y adultos jóvenes, aunque en las últimas décadas es frecuente hallarlo también en niños menores de 5 años. El daño celular ocurre sobre el epitelio de bronquios y bronquiolos por acumulación de peróxido de hidrógeno y radicales superóxido producidos durante su metabolismo celular. Recientemente se ha reportado que en estos eventos patogénicos también participa una citotoxina conocida como CARDS toxin (community-acquired respiratory distress syndrome) que la bacteria expresa como factor de virulencia, ya que induce una importante respuesta inflamatoria celular. Los métodos moleculares son más sensibles y rápidos que los métodos de diagnóstico tradicionales y se consideran de elección. No obstante, para lograr un diagnóstico óptimo, se aconseja la combinación de estos métodos junto con los serológicos. En el presente estudio se optimiza un método de PCR en tiempo real con iniciadores dirigidos a la región del gen que codifica la CARDS toxin. El método demostró ser muy sensible y rápido para el diagnóstico clínico de M. pneumoniae, con una concordancia қ: 0,95 con el método convencional de PCR anidada que emplea como target al gen que codifica para la citoadhesina P1. A su vez es mucho menos laborioso e implica un menor riesgo de contaminación, lo que permite el manejo de un alto número de muestras clínicas (AU)

Mycoplasma pneumoniae has been described as the cause of different infections, the most common of which is communityacquired pneumonia, possibly associated with other pathogens. Community-acquired pneumonia mainly affects school-age children and young adults, although over the past decades the disease has also been found in children under 5 years of age. Cell damage occurs on the epithelium of the bronchi and bronchioles due to accumulation of hydrogenous peroxide and superoxide radicals produced during cell metabolism. Recently, it has been reported that in these pathogenic events a cytotoxin known as CARDS toxin (community-acquired respiratory distress syndrome) participates, expressed by the bacteria as a factor of virulence, as it induces an important inflammatory cell response. The molecular methods are more sensitive and faster than the traditional diagnostic methods, and are considered the methods of choice; however, for an optimal diagnosis, a combination of these methods together with serological studies is recommended. In the current study, a real-time PCR method with markers targeted to the region of the gene encoding the CARDS toxin was optimized. The method showed to be very sensitive and fast for the clinical diagnosis of M. pneumoniae, with a қ agreement of 0.95 with the conventional nested PCR method that uses the gene encoding cytoadhesin P1 as a target. Additionally, the new method is much easier with a lower risk of contamination, which allows management of a large number of clinical samples (AU)

Phytotoxicity associated to microcystins: a review / Fitotocixidade associada às microcistinas: uma revisão

Microcystins (MC) are the most studied toxins of cyanobacteria since they are widely distributed and account for several cases of human and animal poisoning, being potent inhibitors of the serine/threonine protein phosphatases 1 (PP1) and 2A (PP2A). The phosphatases PP1 and PP2A are also present in plants, which may also suffer adverse effects due to the inhibition of these enzymes. In aquatic plants, biomass reduction is usually observed after absorption of cyanotoxins, which can bioaccumulate in its tissues. In terrestrial plants, the effects caused by microcystins vary from inhibition to stimulation as the individuals develop from seedling to adult, and include reduction of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A, oxidative stress, decreased photosynthetic activity and even cell apoptosis, as well as bioaccumulation in plant tissues. Thus, the irrigation of crop plants by water contaminated with microcystins is not only an economic problem but becomes a public health issue because of the possibility of food contamination, and this route of exposure requires careful monitoring by the responsible authorities.

Microcistinas (MC) são as toxinas de cianobactérias mais estudadas, uma vez que são amplamente distribuídas e responsáveis por vários casos de intoxicação humana e animal. São potentes inibidoras das proteínas fosfatases serina/treonina 1 (PP1) e 2A (PP2A). As fosfatases PP1 e PP2A também estão presentes em plantas, as quais podem sofrer efeitos adversos devido à inibição dessas enzimas. Em plantas aquáticas, a redução da biomassa é geralmente observada após absorção de cianotoxinas que podem bioacumular em seus tecidos. Em plantas terrestres, os efeitos causados pelas microcistinas variam de inibição ao estímulo, como no desenvolvimento de plântulas ao estádio adulto, e incluem a redução de proteínas fosfatases 1 e 2A, estresse oxidativo, diminuição da atividade fotossintética e até mesmo apoptose celular, bem como a bioacumulação em tecidos de plantas. Assim, a irrigação de plantas cultivadas com água contaminada com microcistina não é apenas um problema econômico, mas torna-se um problema de saúde pública, devido à possibilidade de contaminação dos alimento, sendo uma via de exposição que requer um monitoramento cuidadoso por parte das autoridades responsáveis.

Isolation of mosquitocidal bacteria (Bacillus thuringiensis, B.sphaericus and B.cereus) from excreta of arid birds.

Mosquitocidal bacteria are environmentally friendly alternatives to chemical insecticides for controlling mosquitoes and therefore, there have been tremendous world-wide efforts to identify novel mosquitocidal bacteria from natural environment. In the present study, excreta from arid-birds were analyzed for identifying mosquitocidal bacteria. The selection of sample for bacterial screening is significant, because, arid-birds are the unique living species and gathering the foods from variety of sources from environment. Out of 1000 samples examined, twelve bacterial strains were identified as mosquitocidal and the 16S rRNA gene sequence alignment depicted that these isolates belonged to Bacillus species (Bacillus thuringiensis, B.sphaericus and B.cereus). Toxicity assay against mosquito vectors have shown that these isolates are potential. The B. sphaericus VCRC-B547 (NCBI: JN377789) has shown a higher toxicity against Cx. quinquefasciatus, An. stephensi, and Aed. aegypti. Result from SDS-PAGE has shown that there was considerable difference in the protein profiles among the new bacterial isolates. Phylogenetic tree with branch length 0.05 revealed three distinct groups with homology among the closely related Bacillus strains. This study therefore throws considerable interest on the diversity of microbial organisms from arid birds and its application in mosquito control.

Modo de ação do biolarvicida Lysinibacillus sphaericus: identificação do epitopo da toxina Binária no receptor Cqm1 e base molecular da seletividade / Mode of action of biolarvicide Lysinibacillus sphaericus: identification of the epitope of the CQM1 Binary toxin receptor and molecular basis of selectivity

A toxina Binária (Bin) é o principal fator tóxico da bactéria entomopatógena Lysinibacillus sphaericus e sua ação em Culex quinquefasciatus depende da ligação com receptores no intestino das larvas. Os receptores são as a-glicosidases Cqm1, localizadas no epitélio, ligadas por uma âncora de glicosil-fosfatidilinositol. Larvas de Aedes aegypti são refratárias à toxina, pois, não apresentam receptores funcionais, apesar de apresentarem um gene que codifica a proteína Aam1, com alta similaridade à Cqm1. Devido às lacunas a respeito do espectro de ação da toxina Bin, o objetivo deste estudo foi identificar epitopos de ligação da toxina no receptor Cqm1 e determinar a base molecular da sua ação para estas espécies de vetores. Os resultados obtidos a partir da análise comparativa das proteínas Cqm1 e Aam1 levaram à identificação de um epitopo da toxina Bin no receptor Cqm1, situado uma alça na região N-terminal S129-A312. Este epitopo é composto pelos aminoácidos 155PATGGG160, não conservados em Aam1 (158AETGKL163), e os resíduos 159GG160 são críticos para a ligação com a Bin...

The Bin toxin is the main toxic factor of the bacterium Lysinibacillus sphaericuswhose action in Culex quinquefasciatuslarvae depends on its binding to the midgut epithelial receptors...

Caracterização e detecção molecular de alelos de resistência ao biolarvicida Bacillus sphaericus em culex quinquefasciatus / Characterization and molecular detection of resistance alleles to the Bacillus sphaericus biolarvicide in Culex quinquefasciatus

A resistência de Culex quinquefasciatus à toxina inseticida (Bin) de Bacillus sphaericus (Bsp) pode estar associada a uma falha da ligação da toxina com os receptores Cqm1, localizados no microvilli intestinal das larvas através de uma âncora GPI. Mutações no gene cqm1 podem impedir a expressão de proteínas Cqm1 funcionais e gerar um alto nível de resistência. O objetivo deste trabalho foi caracterizar e avaliar a frequência de alelos de resistência (r) em populações e colônias de C. quinquefasciatus. Neste estudo, o alelo r cqm1REC, selecionado e identificado anteriormente na colônia R2362, foi detectado por PCR alelo-específica em quatro populações de Recife com frequências entre 0,001 e 0,017. Em duas populações foram identificados novos alelos r, o cqm1REC-D16 e o cqm1REC- D25, com frequência entre 0,002-0,006. Estes alelos são caracterizados por deleções de 16 e 25-nt, respectivamente, as quais geram códon de terminação da tradução prematuro (CTTP) e não codificam proteínas com âncora GPI. Um segundo alelo r (cqm1REC- 2) foi identificado na colônia R2362 e possui uma mutação nonsense (G1292A) que também gera um CTTP, impedindo a localização de receptores Cqm1 no epitélio. O alelo cqm1REC-2 foi co-selecionado com o cqm1REC na colônia R2362 e uma análise da competição entre eles mostrou que o cqm1REC-2 predomina sob pressão de seleção com Bsp, enquanto que o cqm1REC é majoritário na ausência de Bsp. A expressão relativa dos alelos cqm1REC e cqm1REC-2, avaliada por PCR em tempo real, mostrou que ambos possuem uma expressão significativamente menor em relação ao cqm1. Amostras de microvilli intestinal de larvas homozigotas para cada alelo apresentaram uma baixa capacidade de interação com a toxina Bin, corroborando os dados de expressão gênica e o fenótipo de resistência. Este estudo mostrou a detecção e caracterização de novos alelos de C. quinquefasciatus que conferem resistência a Bsp e estes dados são fundamentais para o diagnóstico e manejo da resistência em programas de controle.

Toxinas de Clostridium perfringens / Toxins of Clostridium perfringens

Clostridium perfringens es un bacilo grampositivo anaerobio con capacidad de formar esporas. Es uno de los patógenos bacterianos con mayor distribución en el medio ambiente, ya que puede ser aislado de muestras de suelo y de agua y además forma parte de la microbiota intestinal de animales y humanos. Sin embargo, en ciertas ocasiones puede actuar como patógeno oportunista y causar enfermedades como la gangrena gaseosa, la enterotoxemia del ovino y del caprino y la disentería del cordero, entre otras. En humanos, está asociado a enfermedades como la intoxicación por alimentos, la enterocolitis necrotizante en niños y la enteritis necrótica o pigbel de las tribus de Papúa-Nueva Guinea. El renovado interés que existe actualmente en el estudio de C. perfringens como patógeno veterinario y humano, junto con el avance de la biología molecular, han hecho posible que la ciencia tenga hoy un conocimiento más profundo sobre la biología y la patogenia de esta bacteria. En esta revisión bibliográfica se discuten y actualizan los principales aspectos de la patogenia intestinal de C. perfringens teniendo en cuenta las toxinas con mayor importancia médica descritas hasta el presente.

Clostridium perfringens is an anaerobic gram-positive spore-forming bacillus. It is one of the pathogens with larger distribution in the environment; it can be isolated from soil and water samples, which also belongs to the intestinal flora of animals and humans. However, on some occasions it can act as an opportunistic pathogen, causing diseases such as gas gangrene, enterotoxemia in sheep and goats and lamb dysentery, among others. In human beings, it is associated to diseases such as food poisoning, necrotic enterocolitis of the infant and necrotic enteritis or pigbel in Papua-New Guinea tribes. The renewed interest existing nowadays in the study of C. perfringens as a veterinarian and human pathogen, together with the advance of molecular biology, had enabled science to have deeper knowledge of the biology and pathology of these bacteria. In this review, we discuss and update the principal aspects of C. perfringens intestinal pathology, in terms of the toxins with major medical relevance at present.

Cell cycle arrest & apoptosis of epithelial cell line by cytolethal distending toxin positive Campylobacter jejuni.

Background & objectives: Campylobacter jejuni is the leading cause of gastroenteritis worldwide; cytolethal distending toxin (CDT) being an important virulence determinant. As its role in pathogenesis remains unclear, this study aims to investigate cell cycle arrest and apoptosis by CDT (+ve) and CDT (-ve) C. jejuni isolates on HeLa cells. Methods: Culture supernatants and lysates from 10 C. jejuni isolates [CDT (+ve) and CDT (-ve), five each] were incubated with HeLa cells. CDT activity on HeLa cells was confirmed by cell distension, cell cycle arrest by flowcytometry, and apoptosis by DNA fragmentation and flowcytometry. Results: Culture supernatant and lysate of only CDT (+ve) C. jejuni isolates produced cell distension. For CDT (+ve) and CDT (-ve) isolates, the cells at G2/M phase after 24, 48 and 72 h were 25.8 ± 3.79 per cent and 11.2 ± 0.58 per cent, 72.9 ± 2.44 and 14.3 ± 1.88 per cent, 93.5 ± 0.54 per cnet and 18.0 ± 1.80 per cent respectively (P<0.001). All CDT (+ve) isolates induced DNA fragmentation. Apoptosis induced by CDT (+ve) C. jejuni was significantly greater than CDT (-ve) (26.3 ± 3.49 % vs. 10.4 ± 1.01% at 24 h, 43.9 ± 2.40% vs. 17.6 ± 0.88% at 48 h, 68.4 ± 1.61% vs. 28.4 ± 1.62% at 72 h); (P<0.001). Interpretation & conclusion: The present study shows that CDT (+ve) C. jejuni contributes to the pathogenesis through epithelial cell G2/M phase arrest and apoptosis.

Análise da refratariedade do Aedes aegypti à toxina binária do biolarvicida Bacillus sphaericus / Analysis of Aedes aegypti refractoriness to Bin toxin of biolarvicide Bacillus sphaericus

O principal fator larvicida do Bacillus sphaericus (Bsp) para culicídeos é a protoxina Bin, produzida sob a forma de um cristal, durante a esporulação. Quando ingerido pelas larvas o cristal é processado e a toxina Bin reconhece e liga-se a receptores específicos do epitélio intestinal. O receptor em Culex quinquefasciatus é uma alfa-glicosidase de 60 kDa, ligada à membrana intestinal por uma âncora GPI, denominado Cqm1. Larvas de Aedes aegypti são consideradas refratárias ao Bsp, pois a toxina Bin não reconhece receptores no microvilli intestinal. No entanto, a análise do genoma do Ae. aegypti, revelou a presença do gene aam1, que codificaria uma proteína ortóloga e com 83 por cento de similaridade ao receptor Cqm1. O principal objetivo deste estudo foi elucidar a base molecular da refratariedade do Ae. aegypti ao Bsp, determinada pela ausência de ligação da toxina Bin ao epitélio intestinal das larvas. Para tal, foi feita uma investigação da expressão da proteína Aam1 e do perfil de alfa-glicosidases de Ae. aegypti, tendo como referência o receptor Cqm1. Os resultados mostraram que larvas e adultos de Ae. aegypti expressam uma alfa-glicosidase de membrana de 70 kDa, reconhecida pelo anticorpo anti-Cqm1, e que provavelmente trata-se da proteína Aam1. Tal proteína é expressa no microvilli intestinal das larvas em níveis superiores à Cqm1, no entanto, não apresenta capacidade de ligação à toxina Bin. Em uma segunda etapa, a avaliação de proteínas Aam1 e Cqm1 recombinantes, produzidas em lisado de reticulócitos de coelho, mostrou que ambas não foram capazes de se ligar específicamente à toxina Bin. A falha na ligação da proteína Cqm1 à toxina Bin pode ser decorrente da ausência do processamento pós-traducional adequado neste sistema de expressão, indicando que certas modificações podem ser críticas para a sua funcionalidade. O tratamento da proteína Cqm1 nativa à temperatura de 100 °C aboliu a sua capacidade de ligação à toxina Bin, indicando que a conformação da proteína pode ser essencial para a sua funcionalidade. Os resultados obtidos demonstram que, apesar dos altos níveis de expressão da Aam1 nas larvas de Ae. aegypti, a proteína não é capaz de ligar-se à toxina Bin. Tal fato estar relacionado a outros fatores críticos para sua funcionalidade, tais como diferenças conformacionais e/ou modificações pós-traducionais que determinem o status de refratariedade do Ae. aegypti

Prevalence of staphylococcus aureus and it's toxins in street marketing milk and some milk products

In this study, the bacteriological examination of 130 street marketing milk samples and 251 milk product samples revealed that 47 isolates of Staphylococcus aureus were recovered from 130 milk samples with a percentage of 36% and 31 isolates of S.aureus were recovered from 251 milk product samples with a percentage of 12.4%. The pathogenic activity of the isolated S.aureus from milk and milk products were studied including Heamolytic activity, DNase activity and coagulase activity. The results proved that 70 isolates out of 78 tested isolates were Heamolytic and 72 isolates have DNase activity and 60 isolates have coagulase activity. By using latex slide agglutination Test was used for detection of Protein A in isolated S.aureus from milk samples. The results proved that 46 out of 47 isolates contained protein A. Concerning the ice cream samples 11 out of 13 tested isolates contained protein A. and 16 out of 18 tested isolates from Kariesh cheese contained protein A. The results showed that, out of 78 tested isolates 20 isolates were proved to be enterotoxin A producer, 2 isolates were enterotoxin B producer and 5 isolates were enterotoxin C producer by using ELISA

Caracterização ultra-estrutural dos efeitos citopatológicos causados por toxinas de Bacillus sphaericus no instestino de larvas de Culex quinquefasciatus / Ultrastructural characterization of cytopathological effects of Bacillus

O Bacillus sphaericus (Bsp) é uma bactéria entomopatógena eficiente para o controle de Culex quinquefasciatus, um importante vetor da filariose e arboviroses. O fator larvicida do Bsp é a toxina binária (Bin) e a sua ação em C. quinquefasciatus depende da ligação ao receptor Cqm1. A ausência deste receptor no epitélio intestinal é o principal mecanismo de resistência à toxina Bin. Larvas resistentes a esta toxina, são susceptíveis ao Bsp IAB59 que, além da Bin, produz as toxinas Cry48Aa e Cry49Aa. O principal objetivo deste estudo foi caracterizar os efeitos de toxinas do Bsp nas células do epitélio intestinal de C. quinquefasciatus, utilizando como modelos larvas de uma colônia susceptível a todas as toxinas estudadas (S), de uma colônia resistente à toxina Bin (R2362) e de uma colônia resistente à Bin e Cry48Aa/Cry49Aa (RIAB59). Na primeira etapa, larvas não tratadas das colônias S e R2362 disseccionadas 30 min, 4, 6 e 48 h após a muda para o 4° estádio foram fixadas e processadas para microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET). A avaliação morfológica do epitélio intestinal mostrou que células de larvas R2362, ao final do 4° estádio, são caracterizadas por um intenso acúmulo de inclusões lipídicas, sugerindo que a ausência da a-glicosidase Cqm1 pode estar envolvida com alterações no metabolismo. Para caracterizar os efeitos causados pelas toxinas no epitélio intestinal, as larvas foram disseccionadas 1 e 6 h após o tratamento e processadas para MET. A avaliação ultra-estrutural da ação da toxina Bin nas células do epitélio intestinal mostrou que os principais efeitos em larvas S foram a vacuolização citoplasmática e destruição de microvilosidades. Estes foram observados exclusivamente em células que possuem o receptor Cqm1, demonstrando que esta molécula é essencial para mediar a ação da toxina Bin. Em células de larvas das colônias S e R2362, susceptíveis à Cry48Aa/Cry49Aa, o principal efeito destas toxinas foi a vacuolização mitocondria...

Péptidos tóxicos y no tóxicos de cianobacterias en cuerpos de agua dulce de la V Región, Chile / Toxic and non toxic cyanobacterial peptides in freshwater bodies from the V Region, Chile

En Chile se ha detectado la presencia de algunos géneros de cianobacterias que pueden producir potentes hepatotoxinas y neurotoxinas, las que pueden ser letales para humanos y animales. En el presente trabajo se determinó la presencia de dos géneros de cianobacterias no tóxicos: Chroococcus y Spirulina; y cuatro géneros de cianobacterias productores de toxina, Anabaena, Anabaenopsis, Microcystis y Oscillatoria en tres diferentes cuerpos de agua de la V Región: Lago Peñuelas (Valparaíso), Tranque Recreo (Villa Alemana) y Embalse Los Aromos (Limache). Además se detectó la presencia de hepatotoxinas por MALDI-TOF MS encontrándose microcistina-RR, -LA, -YR y nodularina en Embalse Los Aromos, microcistina-LA en Tranque Recreo y microcistina-RR y LA en Lago Peñuelas. Adicionalmente en algunas de las muestras se detectó la presencia de péptidos no tóxicos, que presentan actividad biológica tales como aeruginosinas, cianopeptolinas y microgininas. Como estos cuerpos de agua dulce son utilizados para abastecimiento público y para la recreación, es importante diseñar planes de tratamiento y monitoreo para detectar y evitar los riesgos a la salud humana y animal provocado por estos microorganismos.

In Chile the presence of some genera of cyanobacteria that may cause potent hepatoxins and neurotoxis has been detected, which may become lethal for man and animal. In this paper the occurrence of two non toxic genera of cyanobacteria: Chroococcus and Spirulina was established along with four genera of toxin-producing cyanobacteria, Anabaena, Anabaenopsis, Microcystis and Oscillatoria in three different masses of water from the V Region: Lago Peñuelas (Valparaíso), Tranque Recreo (Villa Alemana) and Embalse Los Aromos (Limache). Likewise the presence of hepatoxins by MALDI-TOF MS was detected which resulted in the occurrence of microcystina-RR, _LA , -YR and nodularina in Embalse Los Aromos, microcystina –LA in Tranque Recreo and microcystina -RR and LA in Lago Peñuelas. Moreover, the presence of non toxic peptides developing biological activities such as aeruginosinas, cianopeptolins and microgininines was detected. Considering that these freshwater bodies are intended for public supply and recreational purposes, it is of utmost importance to design treatment and supervising plans in order to detect and prevent risks for human and animal health caused by these microorganisms.

A reliable bioassay procedure to evaluate per os toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis strains against the rice delphacid, Tagosodes orizicolus (Homoptera: Delphacidae)

A reliable bioassay procedure was developed to test ingested Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins on the rice delphacid Tagosodes orizicolus. Initially, several colonies were established under greenhouse conditions, using rice plants to nurture the insect. For the bioassay, an in vitro feeding system was developed for third to fourth instar nymphs. Insects were fed through Parafilm membranes on sugar (10 % sucrose) and honey bee (1:48 vol/vol) solutions, observing a natural mortality of 10-15 % and 0-5 %, respectively. Results were reproducible under controlled conditions during the assay (18±0.1 °C at night and 28±0.1 °C during the day, 80 % RH and a 12:12 day:light photoperiod). In addition, natural mortality was quantified on insect colonies, collected from three different geographic areas of Costa Rica, with no significant differences between colonies under controlled conditions. Finally, bioassays were performed to evaluate the toxicity of a Bt collection on T. orizicolus. A preliminary sample of twenty-seven Bt strains was evaluated on coarse bioassays using three loops of sporulated colonies in 9 ml of liquid diet, the strains that exhibited higher percentages of T. orizicolus mortality were further analyzed in bioassays using lyophilized spores and crystals (1 mg/ml). As a result, strains 26-O-to, 40-X-m, 43S-d and 23-O-to isolated from homopteran insects showed mortalities of 74, 96, 44 and 82 % respectively while HD-137, HD-1 and Bti showed 19, 83 and 95 % mortalities. Controls showed mortalities between 0 and 10 % in all bioassays. This is the first report of a reliable bioassay procedure to evaluate per os toxicity for a homopteran species using Bacillus thuringiensis strains. Rev. Biol. Trop. 55 (2): 373-383. Epub 2007 June, 29.

Se desarrolló una metodología de bioensayo para evaluar toxinas de Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) ingeridas por Tagosodes orizicolus, plaga del arroz y vector del virus de la hoja blanca. Se establecieron colonias del insecto en condiciones de invernadero usando plantas de arroz como alimento. Para el bioensayo, se desarrolló un sistema de alimentación in vitro para ninfas de tercer y cuarto estadío. Los insectos se alimentaron de soluciones de miel de abeja (1:48 vol/vol) y sacarosa (10 %) a través de membranas de Parafilm. Se observaron mortalidades del 10-15 % y 0-5 %, respectivamente, en ambas dietas. Los resultados fueron reproducibles en condiciones controladas de humedad y temperatura (18±0.1 °C de noche y 28±0.1 °C de día, 80 % H.R y a 12:12 fotoperíodo día:noche). Asimismo, se analizó la mortalidad natural de los insectos según su procedencia, sin embargo, no se observaron diferencias significativas en condiciones controladas. Finalmente, se elaboraron bioensayos para evaluar la toxicidad de una colección de cepas de Bt contra T. orizicolus. Se evaluó preliminarmente, una submuestra de 27 cepas de Bt en bioensayos burdos usando tres asadas como inóculo para 9 ml de dieta líquida. Posteriormente, las cepas que mostraron los mayores porcentajes de mortalidad se evaluaron en bioensayos usando esporas y cristales liofilizados (1 mg/ml). Como resultado, las cepas aisladas a partir de homópteros 26-O-to, 40-X-m, 43-S-d y 23-O-to mostraron mortalidades de 74, 96, 44 y 82 % respectivamente, mientras que las HD-137, HD-1 y Bti mostraron 19, 83 y 95 % de mortalidad. Los controles presentaron mortalidades de 0 y 10 % en los bioensayos. Este es el primer informe de un bioensayo para evaluar la toxicidad de cepas de Bt utilizando la especie T. orizicolus.

Toxigenicity testing of clinical isolates of non-typhoidal salmonellae in Vero cell culture & Caenorhabditis elegans model.

The non-typhoidal salmonellae (NTS) are recognized agents of gastroenteritis worldwide. Some of the NTS do not produces cytotoxic changes in tissue culture and not much is known about the endotoxicity of the clinical isolates of NTS (mostly Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium and Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis). We examined the exotoxic (cytotoxin) and endotoxic activity of clinical isolates of NTS in two assay models namely Vero cell culture and the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans. Bacteria-free culture supernatants of 40 isolates NTS were tested in 96 well microtitre plate containing confluent monolayers of Vero cells. For the effects on C. elegans, the worms were exposed to bacteria free culture supernatants in 24 well microtitre plate for 24 h and then transferred to OP50 Escherichia coli lawn culture. The endotoxic activity of the live bacterium was studied by feeding the worms in the lawn culture of NTS separately. No cytopathic effect was observed with NTS tested in Vero cell culture assay. Likewise, the worms exposed to the bacteria-free culture supernatants were found active up to 7 days. In the co-culture killing assay, worms were found dead with characteristic stiff and straight appearance by 16(th) day. The worms were alive up to 21 days in OP50 E. coli. Bacteria-free culture supernatants did not have any deleterious effect on worms or in Vero cell culture, suggesting that there is no soluble toxic factor (diffusible toxin) in the culture supernatants. However, live NTS were found to be lethal to the worms; indicating that direct interaction between viable NTS and C. elegans is necessary for killing.

Interação das toxinas Cry do Bacillus thuringiensis svar. israelensis com o mesêntero de larvas do vetor Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) / Interaction of Cry toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis svar. israelensis with the mesenteron of the larvae of the vector Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae)

O Bacillus thuringiensis svar. israelensis (Bti) é um importante entomopatógeno utilizado na produção de larvicidas para o controle do Aedes aegypti, vetor da dengue. A toxicidade do Bti está baseada no cristal, produzido durante a esporulação, que contém quatro protoxinas Cry11Aa (70 kDa), Cry4Aa (125 kDa), Cry4Ba (130 kDa) e Cyt1A (28 kDa). Sua ação ocorre através da ingestão dos cristais que são solubilizados no mesêntero, onde as protoxinas são liberadas e clivadas por serina-proteases em toxinas ativas que agem em sinergia no epitélio intestinal e provocam a morte das larvas. Apesar da alta seletividade do Bti, ainda não foi completamente elucidado como as toxinas Cry interagem com os receptores específicos presentes no epitélio das larvas. O objetivo principal do trabalho foi caracterizar, através de ensaios in vitro de natureza quantitativa, a capacidade de ligação de cada toxina Cry (4Aa, 4Ba e 11Aa) às preparações de microvilli intestinal (BBMF) de larvas de Ae. aegypti. Para tal, cada componente Cry foi produzido a partir de cepas recombinantes, Bt cepa 4Q2-81, para produção de biomassas. A atividade inseticida das biomassas para larvas do 3º/4º estádios foi determinada através de bioensaios e, outra parte da biomassa foi utilizada para a obtenção dos cristais. Os cristais contendo cada protoxina foram processados in vitro e uma amostra de cada uma delas foi marcada com iodo (I125). Para realizar os estudos de ligação foram feitas preparações BBMF, a partir de larvas do 3º/4º estádios. Os estudos da capacidade de ligação da toxina foram realizados através de ensaios de competição, de saturação e de cinética, através de incubações entre a toxina- I125 e preparações de BBMF, na ausência ou na presença de um competidor. (...) Os resultados obtidos mostraram que as toxinas Cry competem pelos mesmos sítios e partilham receptores presentes na BBMF. Em todos os casos estudados, a afinidade do complexo toxinareceptor não foi elevada, e não foi detectada sinergia entre as toxinas Cry para a ligação à BBMF. A ligação entre as toxinas-I125 e a BBMF é irreversível, e observou-se uma forte tendência à oligomerização nos três casos. Os resultados obtidos nesse trabalho sugerem que a toxicidade das toxinas Cry para larvas de Aedes está relacionada à etapa irreversível de ligação com os receptores, e não é caracterizada por um padrão elevado de afinidade do complexo toxina-receptor ...

A new black fly isolate of Bacillus thuringiensis autoagglutinating strain highly toxic to Simulium pertinax (Kollar) (Diptera, Simuliidae) larvae

Formulations containing the entomopathogenic Bacillus thuringiensis serovar israelensis strain IPS-82 has been widely applied for mosquito control around the world. Strain IPS-82 is highly active against Aedes aegypti but less active against other well-known vectors such as Culex quinquefasciatus and Simulium spp. larvae. Eighteen strains of B. thuringiensis were isolated from Simulium pertinax larvae naturally occurring in rivers of Southeast Brazil with one demonstrating special toxic effects. Simulated field tests against S. pertinax larvae showed that the native Brazilian autoagglutinanting B. thuringiensis (LFB-FIOCRUZ 1035) has an LC50 at least 25 times lower than the standard IPS-82 strain. The same bacterial preparation was also tested against Ae. aegypti larvae in laboratory trials and the LC50 values obtained with LFB-FIOCRUZ 1035 were at least three times lower than the one for the IPS 82 strain. The results indicate that this strain is more toxic than the standard B. thuringiensis serovar israelensis (H14) in the two Dipteran species tested. It is noteworthy that differences between LC50 values were more pronounced in S. pertinax larvae, the source of the original isolation.

Effect of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MTCC 1688) on the tissue phosphatases activity on Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Man).

A time course study on the endotoxin toxicity of the gram negative bacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC 1688 on the tissue phosphatases activity on the giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii was conducted. The results revealed marked elevation of both acid and alkaline phosphatase activity in the haemolymph and body muscle. The hepatopancreas showed reduced phosphatase activity compared to control. The enzymes, being non-specific in action and particularly the acid phosphatase being of lysosomal origin, their increase in muscle and haemolymph has pathogenic significance in the inoculum treated prawns.

Effect of Salmonella typhimurium toxin on the expression of rabbit intestinal functions.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Infection by Salmonella Typhimurium is one of the leading causes of intestinal dysfunction, however the underlying mechanism of this effect is largely unknown. Hence the effect of enterotoxin secreted by Salmonella Typhimurium-(S-LT) was studied on D-glucose absorption and brush border enzymes in rabbit ileum. mRNA levels encoding these proteins were also analysed. METHODS: Adult male New Zealand white rabbits were used. The polymyxine B extract of enterotoxin obtained from Salmonella Typhimurium was tested for the presence of enterotoxicity by rabbit ileal loop test. D-glucose uptake by ileal tissue was measured by the tissue accumulation method. Intestinal brush border membranes were isolated and the effect of S-LT on various brush border enzymes studied. RESULTS: S-LT significantly inhibited (P < 0.01) the absorption of Na+ dependent D-glucose uptake but had no effect on Na+ independent sugar uptake in rabbit ileum. The activities of brush border sucrase (72% P < 0.001) and lactase (47% P < 0.01) and alkaline phosphatase (43% P < 0.01) were also significantly reduced in infected animals as compared to the controls. Northern blot analysis revealed that mRNA levels encoding Na+ glucose co-transporter (SGLT1), brush border lactase and sucrase activities were unaffected in Salmonella infected rabbit ileal loops. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that the intestinal dysfunctions observed in Salmonella infection are unrelated to mRNA expression encoding Na+ glucose co-transporter and brush border enzyme proteins in rabbit ileum.

Expression of mosquito active toxin genes by a Colombian native strain of the gram-negative bacterium Asticcacaulis excentricus

Mosquito control with biological insecticides, such as Bacillus sp. toxins, has been used widely in many countries. However, rapid sedimentation away from the mosquito larvae feeding zone causes a low residual effect. In order to overcome this problem, it has been proposed to clone the Bacillus toxin genes in aquatic bacteria which are able to live in the upper part of the water column. Two strains of Asticcacaulis excentricus were chosen to introduce the B. sphaericus binary toxin gene and B. thuringiensis subsp. medellin cry11Bb gene cloned in suitable vectors. In feeding experiments with these aquatic bacteria, it was shown that Culex quinquefasciatus, Aedes aegypti, and Anopheles albimanus larvae were able to survive on a diet based on this wild bacterium. A. excentricus recombinant strains were able to express both genes, but the recombinant strain expressing the B. sphaericus binary toxin was toxic to mosquito larvae. Crude protease A. excentricus extracts did not degrade the Cry11Bb toxin. The flotability studies indicated that the recombinant A. excentricus strains remained in the upper part of the water column longer than the wild type Bacillus strains